Nervous system: The entire set of interconnected neural cells, including neurons and glia, that extends throughout the whole body and that function, in part, by the electrochemical energy flow across the distributed system. Immune, cardiovascular, gastrointestinal, and endocrine systems as well as social interactions directly influence its functions. Includes the skull-based brain as part of the central nervous system as well as the peripheral and autonomic nervous systems.
Neural firing: The activation of neurons involves the flow of energy in the form of electrical movement of ions in and out of the neural membrane and chemical transformations as neurotransmitter release and receptor engagement at the synapse. Neural firing can lead to subsequent activation or inhibition of the downstream neurons.
Neural integration: Linkage of differentiated neurons within the brain. It results in optimal self-regulation with balance and coordination of disparate regions into a functional whole.
Neurogenesis: The production of new neurons from neural stem cells that can occur in certain regions such as the hippocampus of the brain across the life span.
Neuron: A basic type of cell in the nervous system. It is composed of a cell body, receiving ends called dendrites, and a long axon that reaches out to other neurons at a synaptic linkage.
Neuroplasticity: The overall process with which brain connections are changed by experience, including the way we pay attention.
Neurotransmitters: Chemicals released at the ends of neurons that diffuse across the synapse and activate the downstream neurons’ receptors.
Orbitofrontal cortex: A part of the prefrontal cortex just behind the eyes, this important region is molded by relational experience and interacts with other aspects of the middle prefrontal cortex in shaping attachment and self-awareness.
Parasympathetic nervous system: One of two branches of the autonomic nervous system. The parasympathetic branch is inhibitory and de-arousing, producing, for example, decreases in heart rate, respiration, and alertness. Involves aspects of the vagal nerve. See also Sympathetic nervous system.
Prefrontal cortex: Central to the process of creating meaning and emotion and enabling a flexibility of response, it sits at the interface between lower regions (brainstem and limbic areas) receiving input from the body and higher regions (the cortex) involved in integrating information. It includes the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, ventral areas such as the insula, and medial structures such as the orbitofrontal cortex, the ventromedial prefrontal cortex, and, in some views, the anterior cingulate cortex.
Presynaptic / Postsynaptic: Refers to the position of neurons in their synaptic linkage either before or after the synapse.
Receptor: The area of the postsynaptic neuronal membrane that receives the neurotransmitter released by the presynaptic cell, leading to the activation or deactivation of the ensuring potential.
Regulate / Regulation: To monitor and modify the change of something across time. Monitoring involves the capacity to sense a process; modifying involves the modulation and shaping of that process over time. This process can include affect and emotion, physiology and motor movement, or communication and interactions with others.
Resilience: The quality of being able to effectively adapt to stressors.
Reticular Activating System (RAS): A traditional neuroscience term signifying a collection of brainstem nuclei (clusters of neurons) that has input into the cortex and influences “states of arousal” or wakefulness and that in contemporary ways is considered as influencing degrees of activation in regions of the brain involved in attention and cognition.
Sensorimotor: The integration of the sensory and motor systems of the body.
SNAG: Stands for “stimulate neuronal activation and growth.” An acronym for how focused attention can intentionally alter synaptic connections in the brain.
Stress: The internal or external conditions that push the state of an individual away from equilibrium. Some stress is “eustress” and promotes optimal functioning, such as mild anxiety before an exam that can elevate performance. Other stress is harmful because it creates a negative impact on the individual’s well-being. Cortisol is the hormone released in response to stress.
Subcortical: Refers to neural regions below the cortex, including the limbic areas and the brainstem in the skull portion of the nervous system, and sometimes also the neural processing of regions in the body proper.
Sympathetic nervous system: One of two major branches of the autonomic nervous system. The sympathetic system excites and arouses, producing, for example, increases in heart rate, respiration, sweating, and states of alertness. See also Parasympathetic nervous system.
Synapse: The linkage between two neurons. The synapse is often a small space between the end of a neuron’s axons or dendrites through which neurons communicate with each other by way of the release of neurotransmitters from the presynaptic neuron and their reception by the receptors embedded in the membrane of the postsynaptic neuron.
Synaptic shadows: The effects of prior learning on present experience. This is the way the past, embedded in our learning-induced synaptic connections, casts shadows or influences shaped by our earlier experiences and that directly impact how we perceive, feel, and think in the present and even how we anticipate, plan, and create the future. These shadows are neither bad nor good; they are simply the “top-down” way that the past shapes present and future.
Synaptogenesis: The process by which new synapses are formed. Also, may refer to the strengthening of previously existing synapses as a part of synaptic molding.
Thalamocortical circuit: The interconnections between the thalamus and the neocortex.
Thalamus: Sits atop the brainstem. It serves as a gateway for incoming sensory information and has extensive connections to other brain regions including the neocortex. Activity of the thalamocortical circuit may be a central process for the mediation of conscious experience.
Vagus / Vagal Nerve: The tenth cranial nerve that includes an ancient unmyelinated dorsal branch involved in the shut-down response to life threats or unavoidable harm and a more modern ventral vagus involved in the social engagement system. The two branches of the vagal nerve originate in two brainstem nuclei: the ancient dorsal from the dorsal motor nucleus and the more modern ventral branch from the nucleus ambiguus.
